# LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

#4''»P- |to5bm §° -• 

I J ^^ c // .,C*.i 



! UNITED STATES OP AMERICA, f 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/teacherspocketmaOOchri 



THE 




POCKET MANUA 



CONTAINING 



AN OUTLINE. WITH THE DEFINITIONS, 



ARITHMETIC, GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY 
AND GRAMMAR, 






r 






— ^ — - 

BY P, L. CHRISPELL 



HACKENSACK : 
Wil. H. BLEECEEE, BOOK AND JOB PBINTEB, 

iS7a 




L&ISSJ 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, 

By P. L, CHPJSPELL, 

in the CfUce of the Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C. 



CONTENTS. 

PART I.— ARITHMETIC. 

Divisions of Arithmetic 8 

Tables of Weights and Measures 9 — 12 

Problems in Percentage 13 

Mensuration 14 

Multipliers 15 

Progression 16 

Rules, Miscellaneous 17—19 

PART II.— GEOGRAPHY. 

Chart Xo. 1 .-. 22 

Definitions to Division, Nos. 1, 2 and 3 23—28 

Notes on Days and Nights, etc 29 

Topical Reviews 30—3". 

PART III.-HISTORY. 

Eras of the History of the United States 38 

Chronological Tables of Eras 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 39—51 

Revolutionary Y\~ar 52 

Y» T ar of 1312; Missouri Compromise, etc 53 

Mexican War ; Civil War 54 

Seven Wise Men ; Seven Wonders of the World 55 

PART IV.— GRAMMAR. 

Chart No. 1, Orthography, with Definitions 58 — 59 

Chart No. 2, Etymology, with Definitions 60—61 

Chart No. 3, Pronouns and Adjectives, with Definitions. . 62 — 63 

Chart No. 4, Verbs, with Definitions 64 — 65 

Chart No. 5, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjec- 
tions, with Definitions 6G — 67 

Chart No. 6, Phrases and Sentences, with Definitions . . . . 08—69 

Chart No. 7, Order of Parsing, Rules of Syntax . . . . . 70—71 

Chart No. 8, Prosody, with Definitions ■ . . 72—74 

Chart No 9, Versification, with Definitions 76 — 77 

Chart No. 10, Utterance and Pronunciation, with Definit's. 78 — 81 
MISCELLANEOUS. 

Settlement and Admission of States 82—83 

Presidents of the United States 84 

Table of Principal Lakes 85 

Table of Principal Rivers .. .. 86—88 

Table of Principal Mountains 89 

Origin of the Names of the States .. • 90—91 

Rule for the Use of Capital Letters 92 

Rules g 93 

Signers of the Declaration of Independence 94—95 

Flag of the United States .. •. 96 



PREFACE. 

The only excuse 1 nave for offering this little Manual to an 
appreciative class of teachers, pupils and others, whose business 
require definite knowledge, is the clear conviction that there is a 
demand for it. An experience of fifteen years in the schoolroom 
has convinced me of the need of a book of general information; of 
convenient size for the pocket, and furnished at such a price that 
every person in the land may possess it. In this I hope I have ac- 
complished my object, and send it forth to assist teachers in their 
work of elevating humanity from its primeval state of ignorance to 
that degree of intelligence that it may be able to help itself; to 
assist the pupils in their arduous task of storing the mind with 
useful knowledge; to assist printers and lawyers in .their search 
after facts and dates. 

In conclusion, I desire to make especial acknowledgement of the 
valuable services rendered in the preparation of this little work by 
E. P. Seely, of Rome, Pa. 

P. L. CHRISPELL. 



MANUAL. 



May the Teacher within me find, 

All he may need to help his mind ; 

Nor would the pupil be disgraced, 

Unless these pages he defaced ; 

And should you search me through and through, 

Love me you would, both YOU and YOU. 

P. L. C. 



TO THE TEACHER. 



I.— THE OBJECT OF SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

1.— To Promote Good Order. 

2.— To Make Progress, and Moral Improvement. 

II.— TO PREVENT DISORDER. 

1.— A Competent Teacher, who must respect the Pupils and 

have the respect of them. 
2. —The School-room must be Comfortable. 
3.— The Teacher must Educate the People. 
4.— The Children must have plenty of Work, and have Merit 

for what they do. 
5. — Have but few Rules, and execute them. 
6. — Do not Govern too much, 

in.— LAWS FOR TEACHERS. 

All Ideas of Outward Objects must come through the 



IV.— IDEAS MUST PRECEDE WORDS— OBJECTS MUST PRE- 
CEDE NAMES — THOUGHTS MUST PRECEDE SEN- 
TENCES — KNOWLEDGE MUST PRECEDE DEFINI- 
TIONS 

V.— INSTRUCTION MUST PROCEED FROM KNOWN TO UN- 
KNOWN—FROM CONCRETE TO ABSTRACT— FROM 
THINGS TO CLASS— FROM SIMPLE TO COMPOUND— 
FROM FACTS TO PRINCIPLES. 



PART I. 

ARITHMETIC. 



ARITHMETIC. 



I— dotation. 


( Roman 
] Arabic. 


II— ^Numeration. 


( French. 
| English. 



Iir— Addition. 



f 

Q 

H 

W 
H 

H 

I 



IV— Subtraction. 



' 1— Sign ( 4 ) is plus, signifies more. 
2 — Units of the same order only can be 
added. 

3 — Similar numbers only can be added. 
i — The sum is like the numbers added. 
5— Sign (=) signifies equal to. 

f 1 — Sign (— ) minus, signifies less. 

J 2— Difference equals the Min. Subtr'd. 

3 — Subtrahend equals Min— Difference. 
[ 4 — Min. equals the Sub.+Difference. 



1— Sign (X). alL'a 



m'Mplied by. 



V— Multiplication 



9 — Multiplicand may be either abstract 
or concrete.- 

3 — Multiplier must always be abstract. 

4 -Product is always like the Multipli- 
cand. 



VI— Division. 



1 — Sign (-;-) signifies divided by. 
2— Quo. = Dividend. ~ Divisor. 
3— Divisor = Dividend -f- Quo. 
, 4— Dividend = Divisor X Quo. 



TABLES. 



UNITED STATES MONEY. 



10 Mills maif 


1 Cent 


10 Cents ■• 


1 Dime 


10 Dimes " 


1 Dollar 


10 Dollars " 


1 Eagle 



marked ct. 

a. 

E. 



ENGLISH MONEY 



i Farthinrs (far.) make 1 Penny marked d. 

12 Pence ■< 1 Shilling " s. 

20 Shillings '•' 1 Pound £. 



ATOIKDUPOIS WEIGHT. 



16 Drams (dr.) make 1 Ounce marked oz. 

16 Ounces •• 1 Pound " lb. 

25 Pounds ■'•' 1 Quarter *' qr. 

4 Quarters " 1 Hundred Weight .... " c.vt. 

20 Hundred Weight 1 Ton " T. 



TROY WEIGHT. 



24 Grains (gr.) make 1 Pennyweight 
20 Pennyweights '•' 1 Ounce .. 
12 Ounces " 1 Pound 



marked pwt. 
" oz. 
lb. 



APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 



20 Grains (gr.) make 1 Scruple marked sc. or .9. 

3 Scruples "' 1 Dram " dr. or 3- 

8 Drams " 1 Ounce " oz. or 3. 

12 Ounces " 1 Pound " lb. or lb 



LONG MEASURE. 



12 Inches (in.) make 1 Foot .. .. 


marked ft. 


3 Feet " 1 Yard 




yd. 


5J4 Yards, or \(>% Feet. " 1 Rod or Pole 




rd. or 


40 Rods " 1 Furlong 




fur. 


8 Furlongs, or 32ft ^of.s " 1 Mile .. .. 




m. 


3 Miles " 1 League .. 




lea. 


miwtmf^n ■■ \ ii,e ¥:z.z ae } 


deg. 01 


360 Degrees " 1 Great Circle of the Earth. 



10 



CLOTH MEASURE. 



2*4 Inches (in ) make 1 Kail 



4 Ka-.s 

4 Quarters 
3 Quarters 

5 Quarters 

6 Quarters 



1 Quarter of a Yard 

1 Yard 

1 Ell Flemish . . 
1 Ell Eii«j!Isb 

1 Ell French .. .. 



marked na. 
qr. 
yd. 
E. F. 
E. E. 
E. F. 



SQUARE MEASURE. 



144 Square Inches (sq. in.) make 1 Square Foot . . marked ft. 

9 Square Feet " 1 Square Yard ,: j'd. 

30 J4 Square YarJ.s " 1 Square FvOdorPole " p. 

40 Square Hods " 1 ivood .... " R. 

4 Root's " 1 Acre .. .*. .. ■' A. 

640 Acres " 1 Square Mile . . " S. M. 



SURVEYORS' MEASURE. 



7 92-100 Inches (in.) make 1 Link 
25 Links " 1 Pole . 

100 Links, 4 Poles or G6 Feet " 1 Chain 
1C Chains <■" "1 Furlom 

8 Furlongs, or 80 Chains - ; 1 Mile 



marked 1. 
p. 
ch. 
fur. 
'« in. 



SURVEYORS' SQUARE MEASURE. 

625 Sqiiare Links (sq. 1.) make 1 Pole . .. marked P. 

It 1 Pules " 1 Square Chain " sq. ch. 

10 Square Chains " 1 Acre .. .. " A. 

640 Acres " 1 Square Mile '.' sq. m. 

36 Square Miles (6 Miles Square)" 1 Township " T. 



CUBIC MEASURE. 



172S Cubic Inches (cu. in.) 
27 " Feet 
40 " Feet of Round Timber, or) 
50 " " Hewn " j 

16 " 

8 Cord Feet, or) 
128 Cubic Feet, ] 



make 1 Cubic Foot, mar'd cu ft 
cu.yd 



1 " Yard, ' 
1 Ton 

1 Cord Foot 
1 Cord of Wood' 



24?£ Cubic Feet make 1 Perch of Stone or Masonry 



T. 

cd.ft 
Cd. 
Pel*. 



11 



WINE MEASURE. 



4 


tills (gi.) 




make 


1 Pint .. .. 


. . marked pt. 


2 


Tints 




" 


1 Quart .. .. 


» qt. 


4 


Quarts 




" 


1 Callon 


" cal. 


£1 


i Callous 




•« 


1 Barrel 


bbl. 


2 


Barrels, cr 


G3 Gallons 


" 


1 Hogshead 


hhd 



BEER MEASUKE. 



2 Pints (pt.) make 1 Quart .. .. marked qt. 

4 Quarts " 1 Callon .. " gal. 

3G Callous " 1 Barrel .... " bbl. 

1'/, Barrels, or 54 Gallons " 1 norshead .. •' hhd. 



DRY MEASUEE. 

2 Pints (pt.) make 1 Quart marked qt. 

8 Quarts " 1 Peck " pk. 

4 Pecks " 1 Bushel " bu. or bush. 



MEASUEE OF TIME. 



60 Seconds 


(sec.) 


make 1 Minute .. .. 


. . market 


min 


60 Minutes 






" 1 Hour 


" 


h. 


24 Hours 






" 1 Bay 


.. 


da. 


7 Pays 






" 1 Week 


. 


wk. 


3G5 Bays 






" 1 Ccmmcn Year 


.. 


yr. 


3GG Pays 






' 1 Leap Year 


" 


yr. 


12 Calendar Months 




« 1 Year 


.. 


yr. 


13 Lunar 


" 




' 1 Year . . 


" 


yr. 


ICO Years 






• 1 Century 


.. «« 


c. 



CIRCULAR MEASURE. 



(") 



60 Second 
60 Minutes 
30 De-rees 
12 Signs, or 330 = 



make 1 Minute marked ' 

" ' 1 Begree . . " ° 

" 1 Sign " S. 

1 Circle " C. 



12 

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF WEIGHTS. 

TROY. AVOIRDUPOIS. APOTHECARIES. 

1 Pound — 5760 Grains = 7000 Grains = 5760 Grains. 
1 Ounce = 480 " == 4=37.5 " = 480 " 

175 Pounds — 144 Pounds = 175 Pounds. 

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF MEASURES OF 
CAPACITY. 

CUBIC IN. IX CUBIC IN. IN CUBIC IN. IN CUB. IN. IN 
ONE GAB. ONE QUART. ONE PINT. ONE GILL. 

Wine Measure, =231 57% 28% 7 7-32 

Dry Measure {% pk.)=.268 4-5 67 1-5 33 3-5 8 2-5 

SIX PER CENT. METHOD FOR COMPUTING 
INTEREST. 

Rule. — Call every year $.06, half the number of -months cents, 
and every 6th day a mill, and multiply the principal bj the rate. 

If you wish the interest at any other rate per cent., increase or 
diminish the result by as many sixths of itself as the given rat© 
may require. 



m 



Elements of . 

Per enta?e. j *--- Base 



1.— Rate per cent, represented by R. 
2.— Percentage. P. 

B. 

4. — Amount, " A. 

5. — Difference, £). 



Problems in j 
Percentage, j 



I.— P.=B.VR. 
II.— R =P.^-B. 
III.— B.=P.h-R. 
IV.— B.==A.-^1 + R. 

V.— B.=rD.-hl— R. 



Elements of J n _ .-. . . 
Interest. 1 3— Principal 



1. — Rate per cent, per Annum, represented by R 
2.— Interest, " I. 

P. 
4.— Amount, " A. 

5.— Time, « T. 



Problems in 
Inferest. 



I. — P.=The given I.-f-I. of $1 for given Tt at given 
R. 

II.— P.=The given A.-f-A. of $1 for given T. at given 
R. 

III.— R.=The given I.-f-I. on the P. for given T. at 1. 
per cent. 

IV.— T.=rThe given I.-f-I. on the P. for i year; the 
quotient will be the required time in years 
and decimals. 



u 



I —Surfaces. 



II. -Solid? 



i 1.— Area op a PAEALLELOGBAM=Tlie Base 
Xby the Altitude. 

2.— Area op a Trapezoid — y s of the sum 
of parallel sides -by perpendicular 
distance from each other. 

o.— Area of Triangle, when Ease and Al- 
titude are given = half the product 
of Ease and Altitrde. When three 
sides arc given. From half the 
sum of the sides take each side 
separately; Multiply together the 
three remainders and half sum, and 
find the square root of the product 
' 4. — Area op a Trapezium and Polygon — 
1st, If the figure is irregular sep- 
arate it into triangles by diagonals, 
then find the sum of the triangles. 
— 2d, If the figure is regular, separ- 
ate it into triangles by drawing- 
lines from the centre to each angle; 
then find half the product cl the 
perimeter and the perpendicular, 
from the centre to one side. 

5.— Area op an Ellipses =Tho product of 
its two diametersxby 0.7854. 

1.— Surface of a Prism cr CylinderXthe 
perimeter of its end byit3 altitude, 
and add area of both -ends. The 
volume is found by multiplying the 
area of its base by its altitude. 

— Convex surface of a Pyramid <^r Cone is 
found by multiplying the perimeter 
of the base by half of t_e slant 
height. To find the volume, multi- 
ply the area of base by one-third of 
altitude. 

.— To find the surface of a Frustrum, mul- 
tiply the sum of perimeters of the 
two ends by half the slant height, 
to the product add the areas of the 
ends. To find the volume, find the 
square root of the product of the 
areas of the two ends; t3 this ro t 
add the two areas, and multiply the 
sum by one-third of the altitude of 
the frustrum. 



15 



i I 



H 



M 1 

H 

Hi 

D 
t 



1— The Circumference— 3. 1416XDiameter. 

2— The Cirdfcifercnce=6.2832> Radius. 

3— The Area =3. 141 6 > Radius Square. 

4— The Area = 0.7854 -.Diameter Square. 

5— The Radius =0.1592 < Circumference. 

G— The Radius =0.5642 • v of the Area. 

7 — The Diameter =0.3183 ■ Circumference. 

8— The Diameter =1.1284X v / of the Area. 

9— The Area =0.0796 >( Circumference Square, 

10— Side of an Inscribed Equilat. Triaugle=1.7321 K Radius. 

11— Side of an Inscribed Equilat. Triangle =0.8603xDiame'r 

12— Side of an Inscribed Square =1.4142 -Radius. 

13 — Side of an Inscribed Square =0.7071xDiame'r 

14 — Side of an Equal Square =0.8862 >'Diame'r 

15 — Diameter that shall contain the area of a given Square 
=T.1283bXside of the given square. 



{ 1— The Surface 

2— The Surface 

3— The Surface 

4— The Radius 

5— Diameter 

6 — Circumference 

7— Solidity 

3— Solidity 

9— Solidity 
10— Radius 

11 — Diameter - 

j 12 — Circumference : 

13 — Side of an Ins-r'.bed Cube: 

[ 14 — Side of an Inscribed Cube = 



:12 5664 X Radius Square. 
= 3.1416 :■; Diameter Square. 
: 0.3183xCircumf. Square. 
: 0.2821;; v /of Surface. 

0.5642Xv / of Surface 

1. 7725 X v/of Surface. 

0.5236;<Diameter Cubed. 

4.1888 X Radius Cubed. 

(1.0169 <Circumf. Cubed. 

0.6204x.Cub. Rt. of Solid'y 

1.2407 Cub. Rt. of Solid'y 

3.8978 Cub. Rt. of Solid'y 

1 .1547 ■ Radius. 

0.5774xDiameter. 



M 



:';1 



a = first term. 
1 = last term. 

-Teems i n = number of terms. 

d = common difference. 
- s = sum of terms. 



-Fundamental, For- 
mulas .- 



(1) l = a+(n— l)d. 
(2)s = «n(a+l). 



Transposed From 
Fundamental (1 "* 
and 2) 



i-1) 



O- 



l-(n- 
23' 



1 — a. 
n^l 



-l)d. 
-1. 



2S— 2an. 
1— a 



-+1. 



d 

2S 

1+a 



Note.— Twenty cases may. arise, admlt- 
tin ;■ oi solution l.y some transposition or 
combination of Formulas ^1 and 2> 



1. — Terms. 



f a = first term. 
| l = last term. 
-{ n = number of terms. 

r = ratio. 
I s = sum of the terms. 



2. — Fundamental For- 
mulas 



fr-)l = ar" 

U-) 



Transposed from 
Fundamental (1 
and 2) 



(3) 



(-M 



■r: — a 
r-1 



a = rl— (r— 1) ! 

S— a 
'&- 1* 



None. — The Formulas for the m;mli«r (n) of terms would require a 
knowledge of logarithms for their application, therefore they are omitted. 



17 

TO EXTRACT THE SQUARE ROOT. 

Rtle.— Separate the given number into as many periods as pos- 
sible of two fig - . by placing a point over the place of units, 
another over the plac - of hundreds, and so on. 

Find the greatest square in the left-hand period; write the root 
of it at the right of the given number after the manner of a quo- 

- in division, and subtract its square from the left-hand v 
Bring down the next peri d t f the remainder I 

dividend, a:". - : r a trial dr 

Find 1- - sor is contained in 1 

: :"_. ; ! right-hand figure, and write the qu tienl i next figure 

of the root. Annex th lasti t figure to the trial divisor for the 
true divisor, which multiply by the last r and subtract 

the product from the dividend. T - vn the 

nest period for a new dividend. Double the r oot alrea It found for 
a new trial divis >r, and continue the operation as before, till all 
the periods have been brought down. 

CUBE ROOT. 

Rele. — Separate th - given number into as many periods as pos- 
- - units place. 

Fin 1 the gi sa si in the] sft-han I j 1, and write its root 

required root. From that period subtract 
■ I to the remainder bring down the next period for a 

new dividend. Take 3 times the square of the root already 
for a trial dl" isoi which find thee ad figure of tl 

T : tri " - add thirty tiro - 
multiplied by the s the square - - nd, an 1 the 

sum wi] " ivisor. Multiply the t livisoi 

- idfigu . the root, and subtract the { . iuct from t. 
deud, and bring down the next period for a second divi 

Take 300 times the square of the figures of the root found, for a 
trial divisor, and continue the pre ;ess till all the periods have been 
used 

MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF A SECTION OF A CIRCES. 
Multiply the 1-ngth of the arc by hall th i a "ins of the circle. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF THE SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE. 
Find the area ** the sector which has the same arc with the seg- 
ment; and also the area of the triangle formed b? the chord and 



18 

radius drawn to its extremities. The difference of these areas, when 

the segment is less, and their sum, when the segment is greater 
than the semi-circle, will be the area of the segment. Or, to two- 
thirds of the product of the height of the segment by the chord add 
the cube of the height, divided by twice the chord. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF A ZONE OF A CIRCLE. 

From the area of the whole circle subtract the area of the seg- 
ment of the side of the zone. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF A LUNE OR CRESCENT. 

Find the difference of the areas of the two segments formed by 
the area of the lune and its chord. 

TO FIND THE DIAMETER OF THE THREE LARGEST EQUAL 
CIRCLES THAT CAN BE INSCRIBED IN A CIRCLE 
OF A GIVEN DIAMETER. 
Divide the given diameter by 2.155. 

DEFINITIONS. 

An Arc is any portion of the circumference of a circle. 

A Chord of an Arc is the straight line joining its extremities. 

The Segment of a circle is the portion included by an arc and its 
chord. 

The Sector of a circle is the portion included by two radii and the 
intercepted one. 

A Zone is the space between two parallel chords of a circle. 

A Lune, or Crescent, is th* space included between the intersect- 
ing arcs of two eccentric circles. 

BTJLES. 

TO MEASURE HAY IN THE MOW. 

Multiply the length, breadth and thickness together, and divide 
the product by 512. 

TO MEASURE CORN IN THE CRIB. 

Two cubic feet of sound, dry corn in the ear will make a bushel 
of shelled corn; hence, multiply the length by the breadth, and the 
product by the height, measured inside the rail, and divide the 
product by two, the quotient will be the number of bushels of 
shelled corn. 



19 

TO FTN~D THE NUMBER OF BUSHELS OF POTATOES, 
APPLES, tc. 

Do as above with the length, breadth and height, and multiply 
the product by 8. and point off one figure in the product for 

decimals. 



PART II. 

GEOGRAPHY 



22 



CHART No. 1. 



Land 



® <j Water 



Animals 



( Continents. 
I Islands. 
-{ Peninsulas. 
Isthmuses. 
(, Capes. 

\ Oceans. 
Seas. 
Gulfs. 
Bays. 
Lakes. 
Sounds. 
Straits. 
Rivers. 



head of which -{ Afi 



Caucasian. 
Moug dian. 



| Malayan. 
i American 



11 



Ph 



Motions . , 



Circles. 



Zones. 



f On its Axis, 
j Round the Sun. 
~i Gyrat ry. 
( Round the Great 



ommon Centre. 



( Equator. 
Great \ Ecliptic. 
( Meridians 



(Tropics. 
Polar Ci: 



Parallt 



rcles. 

s. 



f North— Frigid. 
j South — Frigid. 
-\ North — Temp- rate. 
| South — Temperate. 
I Torrid. 



Societies. 



Z i 



Countries. 



f Savage. 
j Barbarous. 
<j Half Civilized. 
| Civilized. 
I Enlightened. 

C Empires. 

j Kingdoms. 
•{ Duchies, 
j Principalities 
1 Republics. 



Monarch] 



1 Limited. 



Covemments <{ Aristocracies. 

( Pure 
[Democracies j SepreBail totrvee 



23 
DEFINITIONS TO DIVISION NO. 1. 

Geography is a description of the Earth's surface. 

Natural Geography describes the Laud aud Water Divisions, in 
regard to Climates, Productions, etc. 

Land is the solid matter which constitutes the fixed part of the 
surface of the Globe on which we live. 

Continents are the largest Divisions of the Land Surface of the 
Earth. Continents, like Islands, are entirely surrounded by water. 

An Island is. a portion of land, smaller than a Continent, sur- 
rounded by water. 

A Peninsula is a portion of land almost surrounded by water 

An Isthmus is a neck of land joining two larger portions of land. 

A Cape is a point of land extending into the water. 

Water is composed of Oxygen and Hydrogen, and descends from 
the clouds in rain, and forms rivers, lakes and soas, etc. 

An Ocean is the largest division of salt water 

A Sea is next in size t > an Ocean. 

A Gulf is a portion of water somewhat confined by land and 
opens into the Ccean ui Sea. 

A Bay is the same as a Gulf. 

A Lake is a body of water almost surrounded by land. 

A Sound is a shallow channel or Bay. 

A Strait is a narrow passage of water connecting two larger 
bodies of water. 

A Biver is a stream of water flowing through the land 

An Animal is an organized living being, endowed with sensation 
and the power of voluntary motion. 

Man, to think — an organized living being endowed with reason 
and the pow r er to think. One of the human race. 

The Caucasian is the most enterprising and enlightened race, and 
are meetly whita. 
The Mongolians arc of a yellowish color. 
The Africans arc black. 

The Malays arc of a redish-browu color. They aro savage and 
treacherous. 
The Americans are copper-colored. 



24 
DEFINITIONS TO DIVISION NO. 2. 

Mathematical Geography refers to the Earth as one of the plan- 
ets which revolve around the Sun, and to the position of places on 
the Earth's surface. 

Its form is nearly round, like a ball. 

Motion is the act or process of changing place. 

The Earth's motion on its axis gives us day and night. Its mo- 
tion around the Sun gives us the Seasons. 

The other two motions do not affect us, and, for a definition, see 
your Astronomy. 

A Circle is a plain figure bounded by a single curved line called 
its Circumference, every point of which is equally distant from a 
point within, called its Centre. 

A Great Circle divides the earth into two equal parts. 

The Equator is a Great Circle which divides the earth into 
Northern and Southern Hemispheres. 

The Ecliptic, in Geography, is a Great Circle on the globe, which 
is always in the plane of the earth's orbit. 

A Meridian is but half of a Circle, extending from Pole to Pole, 
and two of them make a Great Circle. 

A Small Circle divides the earth into unequal parts. 

The Tropics are parallel with the Equator, and about -23>£° dis- 
tant from it. 

The Polar Circles surround the Polls, and are 23 1 2 ° distant from 
them. 
The Parallels are small circles parallel to the Equator. 

Zones are belts or divisions of the Earth's surface formed by the 
Tropics and Polar Circles. 

Tiie North Frigid Zone is between the North Pole and the Arc- 
tic < lircle. 

The South Frigid Zone is between the South Pole and the Ant- 
arctic Circle. 

The Notsth Temperate is between the Torrid and the North Fri- 
gid Zone. 

The South Temperate is between the Torrid and the South Fri- 
gid Zone. 



25 

The Torrid Zone lies between the Tropics. 

Political Geography describes the divisions which are formed 
for the Purposes of Government. 

Society is the union of a number of rational beings. 

Savages live by hunting and fishing. 

Barbarous live on cattle, sheep, etc. They understand a few of 
tb> most simple arts. 

Half-Civilized understand argrieulture and many of the arts 
very well, and have a written language. 

Civilized live by agriculture, and the arts and sciences are well 
understood. 

Enlightened are those who have made the greatest progress, 
and are known by their line buildings. 

A. Country is the whole territory of a Kingdom or a State. 

An Empire is a Country governed by an Emperor. 

A. Kingdom is a Country governed by a King or Queen. 

A Duchy is a small Country governed by a Duke. 

A Principality is a small Country governed by a Prince. 

A Republic is a Country whose laws are made by representatives 

elected by the people. 

Government is a rule or set of rides or laws directing what we 
may do and what we may not do. 

A Monarchy is a government in which the supreme power be- 
longs to one person. 

Aristocracy is a government in which the supreme power is in 
the hands of a few persons. 

Democracy is that in which the supreme power is in the hands of 
the people. 

An Absolute Monarchy- is one in which the ruler has absolute 
power, 

A Limited Monarchy is one in which the power of the ruler is 
limited by law. 

A Puke Democracy is a Country where all the people assemble 
and make their own laws. 

A Representative Democracy is one in which the laws axe made 
by repreeeotaavee elected by the people. 



The Easts is the planet on which we live. It is called + v o "World. 

Th<? Tar tli is the third planet from the Sun in our Solar System. 

The "arth is about 91 3 < millions of m:les from the Sun. 

The Zarth is not perfectly round, but flattened at the poles, mak- 
ing a ciilerence of 23 miles between the polar and the equatorial 
diameter. 

The Diameter is a straight line passing through the centre, and 
terminating at both ends by tlic surface. 

The Circumference is the greatest distance around the globe or 
"sphere. 

The Axis cf the Earth is an imaginary straight line passing 
through the centre of the earth, from north to south. 

The Poles of the Earth are the extremities of its Axis, or the 
points where the Axis meets the surface. 
The North Pole is the northern extremity of the earth's axis. 
The South Pole is the southern extremity of the earth's axis. 

The northern extremity of the Earth's Axis points nearly toward 
the North Star. 

The Axis is inclined to the plane of its orbit 23^° from a per- 
pendicular direction. 

If the Axis of the Earth were not inclined, we would have no 
change of seasons. 

Every Circle, whether great or small, is supposed to be divided 
into 300 equal parts, called degrees. 

Great Circles cannot be parallel to each other. 

Latitude is distance north or south from the Equator. Lati- 
tude is reckoned on a meridian toward the Poles. 

The Greatest Latitude is 90 degrees. 

Meridians on the earth are semi-circles, extending from Pole to 
Pole, and cutting the Equator at right-angles. 

Semi, means half; semi-circle, half a circle, and is so-called, 
because, when the sun is over one of them, it is mid-day, or noon. 

Every place is supposed to have a meridian. 

The First Meridian is that from which Longitude is rochoned. 

Longitude is distance east or west from a given meridian. 

The Greatest Longitude is ISO degrees, either east or west from 
the First Meridian, 



27 

The Meridian generally used as the First, is that passing through 
Greenwich, near London. 

The Five Zones have been defined; but a word or two more may 
not be out of place. 

Torrid means hot. 

Frigid means cold. 

Temperate means mild. 

The Temperate Zones are each 43 degrees wide. The Torrid and 
Frigids are 47 degrees wide. 

The seasons of the Torrid are two: wet and dry. 

The seasons of the Temperate are four: Spring, Summer, Fall 
and Winter. 

The seasons of the Frigid Zones are two: along, dreary Winter 
and a very short Summer. 

A Compass is a circular box, containing a magnetic needle, which 
has the singular property of always pointing toward the north; and 
is us^d for directing the course of ships at sea; also used in sur- 
veying land, and ior directing travelers through forests and over 
deserts. 

T^e principal points of the Compass are north, east, west and 
south. 

A Map is a representation of the whole or part of the earth's sur- 
face, on a plane. 

The directions on a Map are, toward the top, north; toward the 
bottom, south; to the right, east; to the left, west. 

A Promontory is a mountainous cape. 

A Mountain is a vast elevation of land. 

A Hill is a small elevation of land. 

A Volcano is a mountain which sometimes sends out fire, smoke 
and lava. 

A Range or Chain is several mountains extending in a line. 

A Peak is the top of a hill, or mountain, ending in a point. 

A Valley is the low land between hills or mountains. 

A Plain is a level tract of land. , 

A Desert is a barren region of country. 

An Oasis is a fertile spot in a desert. 

A Swamp is low, soft, wet land, unfit for cultivation. 

An .Vrchipeligo is a sea, or a part of the ocean, containing many 

islands. 



28 

Harbors, Havens, or Forts, are small bays where ships may 
anchor Bafely. 

A Road, or Roadstead, is a place at some distance from the shore 
where ships may anchor in safety. 

A Pond is a small lake. 

• An Estuary is a narrow and deep inlet of the sea, at the mouth 
of a river. 

The Valley, or Basin op a River, is the tract of country drained 
by the river and its tributaries. 

" A Water-shed is the elevation of land which divides the basins 
of rivers. 

Brooks, Creeks, Rivulets and Rills, are small rivers. 

The Head or Source of a River is its commencement. 

The Mouth of a Rtver is its termination, or the part where it 
empties. 

The Right Bank of a River is the bank on the right hand as you 
go down the stream.; the left bank, the one on the left hand. 

Up a Liver is toward its source ; down, toward its mouth. 

The Falling of a River down a steep, but regular descent, is 
called the rapids. The falling of a river over a precipice, is called 
a waterfall, or cataract. 

A Delta is a tract of land embraced by the several mouths of a 
river. 

A Canal is an artificial channel filled with water for the passage 
of boats. 

A State is a division of a Republic, independent in the manage- 
ment of its local affairs, but united with the others under one gen- 
eral government. 

A County is a division of a State or Kingdom. 

A Township is a division of a County. 

A Village is a small collection of houses and inhabitants. 

A Town is larger than a village, 

A Crrr is a large town, incorporated with special privileges. 

The Capital of a State or Country is the place where the laws are 
made. 

The Metropolis of a Country is the city oontaining the greatest 
number of inhabitants*; 



29 

NOTES. 

1.— DAYS AND NIGHTS. 

At the Equator, the days and nights are always equal, being 
twelve hours each; but north or south from the Equator, they vary- 
in length. In latitude 11 : . the longest day of Summer is fifteen 
hours; at the Polar Circles, twenty-four hours; in latitude 67>£°, 
one month; in latitude, 70°, two months; in latitude 80 & , four 
months; and at the Poles, six months. The longest day of Samm»r 
corresponds in length with the longest night of Winter. 

2.— LENGTH OF DEGREES. 

A Degree of Latitude being measured on a meridian, is always 
69X statue or 60 geographical miles. Longitude is measured on 
parallels, and the length of a degree, at the Equator, is 69.!^ statue, 
or 60 geographical miles; but north or south from it, they become 
less; in latitude 30°, a degree is about 52 geographical miles; in 
latitude 60", it is 3 ' geographical miles; but at the Poles, it is 
nothing. 

3.— THE EARTH IS KNOWN TO BE NEARLY ROUND. 

1st. — Because it casts a circular shadow, which is seen on the 
moon during an eclipse. 

2d. — Because the Tipper parts of distant objects on its surface can 
be seen at the greatest distance. 

3d. — Because it has been circumnavigated. 

4th. — In digging long canals, an allowance of eight inches to the 
mile, must bo made, or the water will not run. 



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51 



PART [II. 

HISTORY 



HISTORY OF U. S. 



I. — Era of Discoveries and Explorations — Extending 
from 1492, to the settlement of Jamestown, 
1607. 

II. — Era of Colonies — Extending from 1G07 to 1775, the 
- Revolutionary War. 

III. — Era of the Revolu tionary War — Extending from 
1775 to the adoption of the Constitution, 
1787. 



o 

}H IV. — Era of the United States of America — Extending 

Ph 

q from 1787 to the Civil War, 1861. 

H 

£j ~ iT . — Era of the Civil War — Extending from 1861 to the 

w 

[ surrender of Lee's Army, 1865. 



VI.— Era of Reconstruction and Passing Events — Ex- 
tending from 1865 to the present time, and to 
continue until some great event in the his- 
tory of the United States shalT constitute 
another Era. 



£ 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 07 1st ERA, 

1492 — Columbus discovered the New World. October 12. 
1497 — The Cabots discovered Labrador. 

1498 — The Atlantic Coast explored by the Casbots; and South America 
discovered by Columbus. Yasco de Gamo sailed round 
the Cape of Good Hope, and discovered a passage t j India. 

1512 — Ponce de Leon discovered Florida. 

1513— September 29. Balboa sa v the Pacific Ocean. 

1519-21— Cortez conquered Mexico. 

1520 — Magellan sailed round Soul . . . . a aid circumnavigated 

the Globe. 

1524 — Verranzani explored the coast of North America. 

1528 — Xarvaez explored part of Florida. 

1534 — Carrier discovered the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

1541 — De Soto discovered the Slississip] i river. 

1540-42 — Cabrillo explored California. 

1562— r.ibaut attempted t > plant a Huguenot colony at Port Royal. 

1565— Melendez f mnded a colony at St. Augustine, Florida — first 
permanent settlement in the United States. 

1576 — Frobisher tried to find a northwest passage; and twice at- 
tempted to found a colony in Labrador, but failed. 

1582— Espejo founded Santa Fee: second oldest town in the United 

States. 
1602— GcsiiOld discovered Cape God. 

1605— Pe Monts established a colony at Pert Royal. Nova Scotia— 
first permanent French settlement in America. 

1G07— Enrl'sh settled Jamestown — first permanent English settle- 
ment in America. 



40 
CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF 2d EEA. 

1609— Hudson discovered Hudson river. 

1613— New York settled by the Dutch. Pocahontas married Rolfe. 

1615 — Culture of Tobacco commenced in Virginia. 

1619 — First Colonial Assembly was called in Virginia. 

1620— Slavery introduced at Jamestown. Puritans land at Ply- 
mouth. First Permanent English settlement in New 
England. 

1622 — Indian Massacre, in Virginia. 

1623— New Hampshire settled at Dover and Portsmouth. 

1629 — Charter granted to Massachusetts Bay Colony. 

1630 — First house built in Boston, under Governor Winthrop. 

1632 — Maryland granted to Lord Baltimore. 

1634— Maryland settled at St. Mary's. 

1634-6 — Connecticut settled at Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield. 

1635 — Clayborne's Rebellion in Virginia and Maryland. 

1636 — Rhode Island settled at Providence. 

1637— Pequod War. 

1638— New Haven Colony founded. Delaware settled by Swedes. 

1641— New Hampshire united with Massachusetts. 

1643 — Union of New England Colonies. 

1644 — Second Indian Massacre in Virginia. 

1655— Civil war in Maryland. New Sweden conquered by Dutch. 

1660— Navigation Act passed. 

1662 — Charter granted to Connecticut. 

1664— New Netherland conquered by the English, and called New 
York. New Jersey settled at Elizabethtown. 

1670— South Carolina settled on Ashley River. 

1675— King Philip's War. 

1676—Bacon's Rebellion. 

1679— New Hampshire made a Royal Province. 



41 

1680— Charleston, S. C, founded. 

1682 — Pennsylvania settled. Delaware granted to William Penn by 
the Duke of York. 

1683— Philadelphia founded by William Penn. 

1686 — Androa arrived in Boston, r-s Governor of New England, 

I J 3! -King William's War. Andres seized and sent to England. 

tady bnrned by Indians and French.. 

1692— ialeni Witchcraft. 

1 97—3 f ' - terminated King William's War. 

1702— '- War commenced. 

1713 — Queen Anne's War closed by treaty with Uetrecht. 

1732 — Washington Bora, February 22. 

1733 — Ge rgia s 'ttled by Oglethorpe, at Savannah. 

1739— Th 8] finish War began. 

1744 — Kii _ - - - - began. 

1745— L raisburg captured by the English. 

1748— Ki ._ George's War ended by treaty of Aix la Chapelle. 

1733 — Ws shmgt n 3ent with letter, by Dinwiddle, to St. Pierre. 

1754— Battla of Great Meadows. Fort ^ejessit" captured by the 
French. 

1755 — Bradd ek lefeated in the Battle of ilonongahela. British 

defea i at Lake George. 

17.36 — War first formerly declared between English and French. 
French, under M adFori ■ rego. 

1757 — I He . - _. red : Montcalm. 

1758 — Abercrombie repulsed at Fort Tieonderoga. Louisburg taken 
by Amherst and Wolfe. Fort Frontenac captured by 
Color.- - : rtDn Juesne taken by English. 

1759 — Tieonderoga and Crown Point abandoned by French. Niag- 
ara surrendered t the English. Battle of the Plains of 
Abraham, September 13. Quebec surrendered to English 
September 18. 

174 )— Montreal surrendered to English, September 8, 

1763— Peace of Paris, 



1765— The Stamp Act passed, March 8. 

1766— The Stamp Act repealed by Parliament, March 18. 

17G7— A tax imposed on tea, &c, June 29. 

1770— Boston Massacre, March 5. All duties, except on tea, re- 
pealed, April 12. 

1773 — The tea thrown overboard in Boston Harbor, December 16. 

1774 — Boston Port Bill passed, March 31. First Continental Con- 
gress met at Philadelphia, September 5. 

1775— Battle of Lexington, April 19. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF 3d ERA. 

1775 — Battle of Lexington, April 19. 

Ticonderoga taken by Allen and Arnold, May 10. 
" Crown Point taken, May 12. 
" Washington elected Commander-in-Chief, June 15. 

Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. 

" Washington took command of troops before Boston, July 2. 

" Montreal Surrendered to Montgomery, November 13. 

" Battle of Quebec; Montgomery kiUed, December 31. 

1776— Boston evacuated by British troops, under Lord Howe. 
March 17, ' 

" Attack on Fort Moultrie, June. 28. 

" Declaration of Independence, July 4. 

• { Battle of Long Island, August 27. 

Battle of White Plains, October 28. 

" Washington's retreat through New Jersey, November and 
December. ' 

" Battle of Trenton, December 26. 

1777 — Battle of Princeton, January 3. Murder of Miss McCrea, 

July 27. 

*« Battle of Bennington, August 16. 



43 

177?— Battle of Brandyn-ine, September 11. 
" First battle of Saratoga, September 10. 
" Philadelphia captured by the British ;: I r./ :r 23. 
" Battle of Germantown, October i. 

Second battle of Saratoga. October 7. 
" Surrender of Burgoyrie, October 17 
ITT— Battle of Monmouth.. June - 

American independence acknowledged by France, Febru'y G. 
•' Massacre of Wyoming, July 3. 
'•' French fleet arrived in Xarragansst Bay, July 29. 
" British captured Savaunah, Ga., December 23. 
1770— Stony Point captured by Gen. Wayne, July 15. 
" Sullivan defeated Tories and Indians, near Eimira, N. X., 
Augv- 

Paul Jones's victory, September 23, 
1730— Battle of Hanging Bock, S. C, August 6. 
" Battle of C amden, August 1G. 
" Andre executed, October 2. 

Battle of King's Mountain, October 7. 
1781— Kichmond burned by Arnold, January 5. 
Battle of Cowpens, January 17. 
" Battle of Guilford Court House, March 15. 
'• Fattle of Eutaw Springs, September 8. 
" Surrender of Cornwallis, October ID. 
1783 — Savannah evacuated by British, July 11. 
" Treaty of Peace signed at Paris, September 3. 
'•' New Yori evacuated by British, November 2 J. 
" Charleston, S. C, evacuated, December li. 
" Washington resigned his commission, December 23. 
1787— Shay's Bebellion in Mass. ; and the Constitution of the United 
State* adopted, in convention, September 17. 



u 

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF 4th ERA. 

1789 — Washington inaugurated, April 30. 

1791 — Vermont admitted to the Union, March 4. 

1792 — Kentucky admitted to the Union, June 1. 

" Discovery of Columbia River, by Captain Gray, May 11. 
1793 — Difficulties with Genet. 
1794 — Indians defeated by Wayne, August 20. 

_" Whisky Insurrection in Pennsylvania. 
1795— Jay's Treaty ratified, June 24. 
1796— Tennessee admitted to the Union, June 1. 
1797 — John Adams inaugu rated, March 4. 

" Washington died, at Mount Vernon, December 14. 
1800 — Capitol removed to Washington. 

" Treaty with France, September 30. 
1801 — Thomas Jefferson inaugurated, March 4. 

" .War declared by United States against Tripoli, June 10. 
1802— Ohio admitted to the Union, November 29. 
1803 — Louisiana purchased from France, April^O. 

" Fleet sent Against Tripoli. 
1804 — Lieut. Decatur destroyed Frigate Philadelphia, February 15. 

Hamilton killed, by Burr, July 11. 
1805 — Treaty of Peace with Tripoli, June 3. 
1807— Chesapeake fired into, by Leopard, June 22. 

" Embargo on American ships, December 22. 

" Fulton first ascended the Hudson, September 14. 
1809 — James Madison inaugurated, March 4. 
1811 — Action between the President and the Little Belt, May 16. 

" Battle of Tippecanoe, November 7. 
1812— Louisiana admitted to the Union, April 8. 
..««..- VWar declared against England, June 19, 

84 Hull invaded Canada^ July 12. 



45 

1812 — Mackinaw surrendered, July 17. 

" Detroit surrendered, August 1G. 
Battle of Queenstown, October 13. 

" "Wasp captured Frolic, October 13. 
1313— Battle of Frenchtown, January 22. 

" Capture of York, April 27. 

" Siege uf Fort Meigs, May 1. 

" Sackett's Harbor attacked, May 29. 

" American Frigate Chesapeake captured, by the Shannon, 
June 1. 

" Battle of Fort Stephenson, Ohio, August 2. 

" Massacre, of Fort Mims, August 30. 

" Perry's victory, on Lake Erie, September 10. 

" Battle of the Thames, October 5. 

' ' Battle of Chrysler's Field, November 11. 

18U— Battle of Horse-Shoe Bend (Tohopeka), March 27. 

" Battle of Chippewa, July 5. 

ii Battle of Lunday's Lane, July 25. 

Washington captured by the British, August 24. 

Battle of Plattsbui'g and Lake Champlain, September 1L 

Bombardment of Fort McHenry, September 13. 

Hartford Convention, December 15. 

Treaty of peace, December 24. 

1815 — Battle of New Orleans, January 8. 

" War with Algiers. 

1816— Indiana admitted to the "Union, December 11. 

1817— James Monroe inaugurated, March 4. 

•* Mississippi admitted to the Union, December 10. 

1818— Illinois admitted to the Union, December 3. 

1819 — Alabama admitted to the Union, December 14. 

* J Florida purchased of Spain , February 22. 



IB 

1820— Missouri Compromise passed, March. 8. 

*■ Maine admitted to the Union,- March 15. 
1821— Missouri admitted to the Union, August 10. 
1824- Visit of La Fayette, August 15. 
1825 — John Quincj' Adams inaugurated, March 4. 
182G— Adams aad Jefferson died, July 4. 
1829— -Jackson inaugurated, March 4. 
1832 — Black Hawk war. Nullification in Couth Carolina. 
1835— Dade s massacre by Seminoles, December 23. 
183G — Arkansas admitted to the Union, June 15. 
1837 — Michigan admitted to the Union, January 26. 
Martin "Van Biiren inaugurated, March 4. 
Battle of Okechobee, Seminoles routed by Taylor, Dec. 25. 
1841 — Wm II. Harrison inaugurated, March 4. 
President Harrison died, April 4. 
John Tyler inaugurated, April 6. 
1342 — Dorr rebellion. 
18-45 — Florida admitted to the Union, March 3. 

*' James K. Polk inaugurated, March 4. 

" Texas admitted to the Union, December 27. 
1846— Battle of Palo Alto, May 8. 

" Battle of B,esaca de la Palma, May 9. 

" Congress declared war against Mexico, May 11. 

" Monteroy captured, September 24. 

" Iowa admitted to the Union. December 28. 
1847— Battle of Buena Vista, February 23. 

" Vera Cruz captured, March 29. 
Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. 

e< Battle of Contreras, August 20. 

" - ■ Capture of Chapultepec, September 13, 

" Mexico surrendered, September 14. 



47 
IS43— Treat] »f peace •.-:.::- " :r?2. 

" Col J discovered in California. February. 
YTisconsin z in : Fnion, Mc 

1G43 — General Taylor inaugurated, ill r b 
1S50— President Taylor died. J 

Millard Fillmore inaugurated, July 1 5 

" California a Imitf . : the Uni n 3eptem1 
1S53 — Franklin Pierce inaugurated, Mar-: 
1 i : I — Comraodor el - r ; b . 

Eansas-Nibraska Bill passed, May 
1857— James Buchanan inaug r 
i: : 3— Hian : Hota admitted to the Union, May 11. 
1 1 : ." — I regon admitted to the Fnion, February 14. 
i; : : — .. :.:Ii Carolina seceded from the Fnion, Decern' r : 
l?6i — E ;team :-r Star of th: I ur^on, Jamie: 

" Fenra* admitted to the Fnion as a State, Janca: . 

" fJcuther- : : r:._ rlz'.ll . ..- j I ".. : 



CHRONOIiOGICAIi TABLE OF 5th I 

18G1 — Abraham Lincoln inaugurated, March 4. 
" Fort Sumter fired upon, April 12. 
' ' Lincoln called for 75,000 volui.: - ers, Aj ril 13. 

Confederates seized Har_ n - Ferry, April M 
- 
■ ■ C onfe ierates seized Norfolk Xa~ Yard, April 20. 
" 3att'.o of Philip?!., "a,, Juno 0. 
" Battle < Big Bethel, Va., Jane 10. 

Battle of Booneville, Mo., June 1 7 . 

Bt - I . _ _ . - M 



48 

1861— Battle of Rich Mountain, Va., July 11. 
" Battle of Carrick's Ford, Va., July H. 
" Confederate Congress assembled at Richmond, Va , July 20. 

Battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21. 
*' Battle of Wilson's Creek, Mo., August 10 
" Forts at Hatteras Inlet, N. C, captured, August 29. 
" Battle of Carnifex Ferry, Va., September 10. 
" Battle of Lexington, Mo., September 20. 

Battle of Ball's Bluff, Va., October 21. 
" Port Royal, S. C, taken, November 7. 
" Battle of Belmont, Mo., November 7. 
" Seizure of Mason and Slidel], November 8. 
" Skirmish of Dx-anesville, Va., December 20. 
1862— Battle of Mill Spring, Ky., January 21. 
" Fort Henry, Tenn., taken, February 6. 
" Roanoke Island, N. C, taken, February 8. 
" Fort Donaldson, Tenn., taken, February 16 

Battle of Pfa Ridge, Ark., March 7. 
" Battle of the Monitor and the Merrimac, March 9. 
" Newburn, N. C, taken, March 14. 

Battle of Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), Tenn., April 6, 7. 
" Island No. 10, captured, April 7. 
' New Orleans captured,. April 25. 
" Beaufort, S. C, captured, April 25 
" Yorktown, Va., taken, May 4. 

Battle of Williamsburg, Va., May 6. 
" Norfolk, Va., surrendered, May 10. 
-' Corinth, Miss., taken May 30. 

<« Battle of Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines, Va., May 1, June 1. 
" Lee assumed command, of Confederate armies, June 3 
« Memphis, Team, surrendered* Juoe & 



1862— Seven Days' Battle, June 25, July 1. 

" Battle of Cedar Mountain, Va., August 9. 

" Second battle of Bull Bun, Va., August 29. 
Battle of Richmond, Ky., August 30. 

" Battle of Cbantilly, Va., September 1. 

" Battle of South Mountain, Md., September 14. 

" Harper's Ferry surrendered, September 15. 

" Battle of Antietam, Md., September 17. 

" Battle of Iuka, Miss., September 19 ; 

«« Battle of Corinth, Miss., October 4. 

" Battle of Perryville, Ky., October 8. 

" Battle of Fredericksburg, Ya., December 13. 

*< First attack on Vicksburg, Miss., December 29. 

" Battle of Murfreesboro, Tenn., December 31 and Januarv 1. 
1863. 
1863 — Emancipation Proclamation, January 1 

" Arkansas Post taken, January 11. 

" Fort Sumter, S C, bombarded by fleet, April 7. 

" Grant "a campaign before Vicksburg, May 1, 17. 
Battle of Cliaacelorsville, Va., May 2, 3. 

" West Virginia admitted to the Union, June 20. 

" Battle of Gettysburg, Penn., July 1, 3. 

" Vicksburg, Miss., surrendered, July 4. 

" Port Hudson surrendered, July 8. 

" Draft riot, in New York city, July 13, 16. 

" Fort Wagner, S. C, taken, September 7. 

" Battle of Chickamauga, Ga., September 19, 20. 

" Battle of Chattanooga. Ga., November 24, 25. 

" Siege of Knoxville, Tenn., raised, December 3. 
1864— Battle of Olustee, Fla., February 20. 

" Grant made Lieutenant-General, March 3. 



50 

1864— Fort de Russy captured, March 14. 
" Fort Pillow, Term., captured, April 12. 
" Butler landed at Burmuda Hundred, May 5. 
" Battle of the Wilderness, Ya., May 5, 6. 

Battle of Spottsylvania, Va., May 8, 12. 
" Battle of Resaca, Ga., May 14, 15. 
" Battle of New Market, Va., May 15. 

Battle of Dallas, May 25, 28. 

Battle of Cold Harbor, Va., June 3. 
" Battle of Lost Mountain, Ga., June 15, 17. 
" Battle between the Kearsage and Alabama, June 19. 
" Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, Ga., June 27. 
" Battle of Monocracy, Md., July 9. 

Battles before Atlanta, Ga., July 20, 22, 28 
" Chambersburg, Pa., burned, July 30. 
" Mine Explosion, Pittsburg, Va., July 30. 
" Farragut entered Mobile Bay, Aug. 5. 
" Weldon railroad seized, Aug. 18. 
" Atlanta, Ga., taken, Sept. 2. 

Battle of Winchester, Va. , Sept. 19. 

Battle of Fisher's Hill, Va., Sept. 22. 

Battle of Cedar Creek, Va., Oct. 19. 
" Nevada admitted into the Union, Oct. 31. 

Fort McAllister, Ga., taken, Dec. 13. 

Battle of Nashville, Tenn., Dec. 15, 1C. 
1865— Fort Fisher, N. C, taken, Jan. 15. 
" Columbia S. C, taken, Feb. 17. 
" Charleston, S. C, taken, Feb. 18. 

" Battles of Averysboro and Bentonsville, N. C, March 15, 18. 
" Attack on Fort Steadman, Va., March 25. 

Battle of Five Forks, Va., April 1. 



51 

1865— Petersburg and Richmond taken, April 2, 3. 
" Lee's army surrendered April 9. 
" President Lincoln assassinated, Aprii 14. 
" Johnston's army surrendered, April 26. 
" Jefferson Davis captured, May 11. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF 6th ERA. 

1865 — Andrew Johnson, inaugurated, April 15. 

" Conditional Amnesty proclaimed, May 29. 

«' Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing Slav 
ery, declared to have been ratified by three*fourths of 
the States, December 18. 

1866 — Civil Eights Bill passed. Fenian invasion of Canada. Four- 
teenth Amendment of the Constitution proposed. Ten- 
nessee restored to her relations in the Union. 

1867 — Nebraska admitted. 

" Russian- America purchased from Russia. 

1868 — Impeachment, trial and acquittal of President Johnson. 

" Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiania, North and 
and South Carolina, restored to the Union. 

" Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution ratified. 

" Proclamation of unconditional amnesty to all concerned in 

the secession movement. 

1869 — General Grant inaugurated, March 4. 



Note. — From this time, keep posted on passing events, and note 
them down in a book kept for this purpose. 



CAUSE AND RESULT OF THE REVOLUTION. 

England Claimed— 

1st. That she had an undoubted right to tax her colonies. 

'2d. That the colonies were but a portion of the British Empire. 

3d. That the colonies had ever submitted to the jurisdiction of 
the mother country. 

4th. That the inhabitants of the colonies were as much repre- 
sented in Parliament as the great majority of. the English 
nation. 

5th. That the taxes proposed were but a moderate interest for 
the immense sums which had already been bestowed in 
the defense of the colonies, and which would still be re- 
quired for their protection; and that protection itself is 
the ground that gives the right of taxation. 

Colonies Claimed— 

1st. As a fundamental principle, that taxation and representa- 
tion are inseparable. 

2d. That they were neither actually nor virtually represented 
in the British Parliament. 

3d. That, if their property might be taken from them without 
their consent, there would be no limit to the oppression 
which might be exercised over them. 

4th. That they supposed that the assistance which Great Brit- 
ain had given them was offered from motives of humanity 
and not as the price of their liberty. 

5th. The colonies had full confidence in their ability to defend 
themselves against any foreign enemy; and that taxa- 
tion without representation they would submit to no 
longer. 
Notwithstanding the murmurs which had arisen from every 
quarter, Great Britain passed numerous oppressive acts, among 
which was the Stamp Act of 17G5. This act ordained that instru- 
ments of writing, such as deeds, bonds, notes, printed pamphlets, 
almanacs, etc., should be executed on stamped paper, for which a 
duty should be paid to the Crown. 

The war began April 19th, 1775, with the battle of Lexington, and 
continued until the treaty of peace, signed at Paris, September 3i 
1783. 

The colonies gained their, liberty. Great Britain lost the colo- 
nies, 50,000 of her best soldiers, and £100,000,000 sterling. 



53 
CAUSE AND RESULT OF THE WAR OF 1812. 

England Claimed— 

1st. That a man once a. subject was always a subject; and that 
no act of his could change his allegiance to the Govern- 
ment under which lie was born. ■ 

•2d. That she had the right to search the vessels of other 
nations, and to take from them, and to impress into her 
service, those who had been naturalized, and were 
claimed to be citizens of other countries. 

United States Claimed — 

That man Avas born free ; and if, when he arrived at years of 
reflection, he preferred some other government to that 
of his native laud, he had a right to withdraw himself, 
and break the bonds imposed by his birth: and that to 
the so-called right of search and impressment she would 
submit to no longer. June 18, 1812. America declared war 
against Great Britain. A treaty of peace was concluded 
in December 1814. Great Britain virtually relinquished 
her pretentions to the right of search and impressment. 



THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE OF 1821. 

Missouri applied for admission into the Union. A proposition 
in Congress to prohibit the introduction of slavery into the new 
State, arrayed the South against the North— the slaveholding 
against the non-slaveholding States— and the whole subject of slav- 
ery became the exciting topic of debate throughout the Union. 
The Missouri question was finally settled by a compromise, which 
tolerated slavery in Missouri, but otherwise prohibited it in all 
the territory of the United States, north and west of the notheru 
limits of Arkansas. 



THE SOUTH CAROLINA NULLIFICATION 
ACTS OF 1832. 

The South Carolina State Convention declared that the tariff acts, 
passed by the Congress of the United States, imposing additional 
duties on foreign goods, were unconstitutional, and therefore null 
ami void; that the duties should not be paid: and that any attempt 



54 

on the part of the general government to enforce the payment, 
would produce the withdrawal of South Carolina from the Union; 
but a proclamation of President Jackson's, declaring that the laws 
must aud should be executed, soon caused South Carolina to recede 
from her hostile position. 



CAUSE AND EESULT OF THE MEXICAN 
WAR. 

The cause of the Mexican war, which began as early as the 2Gth 
of April, 1846, was the annexation of Texas and the claim of a cer- 
tain tract of land by both the United States and Mexico. The tract 
was In Texas, between the Neuces river and the Rio Grande On 
the 2d of February, 1846, a treaty of peace was concluded, by which 
the United States obtained from her late enemy a large increase of 
territory, embracing all New Mexico and Upper California. For 
the territory and privileges thus obtained, the United States sur- 
rendered to Mexico all castles, forts, teri'itories, places andnossr - 
sions, not embi'aced in the ceded territory; and agreed t > pay Mex- 
ico fifteen millions of dollars, and assume the liquidation of a.l 
debts due American citizens from the Mexican government. 



CAUSE AND EESULT OF THE CIVIL WAE 
OF 1861. 

The authorities of the Southern States sought to withdraw those 
States from the Union, claiming they had a right to do s >; aud the 
United States government denying the right of any State to secede, 
raised armies to enforce its authority. 

The war began in April, 1861, and virtually closed with the sur- 
render of Lee's army, April 9, 1863, and resulted in a complete vic- 
tory to the United States government. 



55 

NOTES. 

1. The Seven Wise Men of Greece — 

These were seven perso: s noted for their sagacity as philoso- 
phers and statesmen at an early period of Greek history; they 
were Periander, of Corinth ; Pittacns, Thales, Solon, Bias, 
Chilon and Cleobulas. 

2. The Seven Wosdees of the World — 

) The Greeks considered them to be: 1st — The Pyramids of 
Eg; pt; 2d., the Walls and Hanging Gardens of Babylon; 3d., the 
Pharos at Alexandria; 4th., the Temple of Diana, at Ephesns; 5th., 
the Statue of the Olympian Jupiter, Sculptured by Phidias, and 
composed of ivory and gold; 6th., the splendid Sepulchre, erected 
by Queen Artemisia to her husband, Mausolus, 353 years B. C. — 
hence the English term mosoleum; 7th., the Colossus, of Rhodes. 



3. U. S. Gov- 



I. Executive 



II. Cabinet. •{ 



(President .. .. 
( Vice-President. . 
Secretary of State . . 
'•' Treasury 

War 
' ' Navy 

" Interior 

j Attorney-General . 
| Postmaster-General 
( 1 Chief Justice , 



Salary 



III. Judiciary. 



( 8 Associate Justices 



550,000 
8,000 
8,000 
8,000 
8,000 
8,000 
8,000 
8,000 
8,600 
6,000 
6,000 



Court meets first Monday in December, at Washington 



PART IV. 



GRAMMAR, 



58 



CHART No. 1 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, i 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 
ETYMOLOGY; 
SYNTAX. 
PROSODY 



Words 



Letters 



Syllables . . 



1. Vowels. 

2. Consonants. 



3. United Letters. 



Monosyllables. 
Dissyllables. 
Trisyllables. 
Polysyllables. 

Primitive. 
Derivative. 
Simple. 
Compound 



( Semi-Vowels. 
( Mutes. 

Diphthongs. 
Triphthongs. 



( Proper. 
( Improper. 
( Proper. 
( Improper. 



Spelling. 



59 
DEFINITIONS OF CHART No. 1. 



1. English Grammar is the art of speaking and Writing the English 

language correctly. 

2. Orthography signifies writing words correctly. It treats of 

letters, syllables, xyor&s and spelling. 

3. Etymology treats of the parts of speech — their classilication and 

modification. 

4. Syntax treats of the relation, agreement and government of 

words in sentences. 

5. Prosody treats of punctuation, elocutiou, figures and versifica- 

tion. 



1. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, words and spelling. 

2. A Letter is a character used to represent an oral sound — called 
vocal. 

3. A Vowel is a letter representing an unarticulated sound. 

4. A Consonant is a letter representing an articulated sound. 

5. A Semi-Vowel is a consonant whose sound may be prolonged. 

6. A Mute is a consonant whose sound cannot be prolonged. 

7. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable; as oiin 
oil. 

8. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one syllable; ajiew 
in view. 

9. A Proper Diphthong has both of the vowels sounded; ft/ir of 
them oi, oy, ou and ow 

10. An Improp<r Diphthong has one of the vowels silent; As e in 
heart. / 

11. A Prrper Triphthong has three vowels sounded; as /n quoit, 
buoy. 

12. An Improper Triphthong has two vowels silent; as ve in owe. 

13. A Syllable is a letter or union of letters littered together. 

14. A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable. / 

15. A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables / 

16. A Trisyllable is a word of three syllables. / 

17. A Pahjsyllab e. is a word of ma'iy syllables, 

18. A Word is, the expression of an idea, - 

19. A Primitive W»rd is the roc t or radical word. 

20. A Derivative Word is the root w-itlt a prefix or suffix. 

21. A Simple Word is one not compounded. 

22. A Compound Word is, one composed of simple wordg. 



60 



CHART No. 2. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Nouns. 
Pronouns. 

Adjectives 
Verbs. 
Adverbs. 
Prepositions. 

Conjunctions. 
I Interjections. 



Nouns 



( Proper. 
Greater Class. ! 

( Common. 



f Collective 
I 
Smaller Class. -{ Vbstract. 

I 

I Verbal. 



Nouns and Pronouns ) 
have * j 



Gender. 



Masculine. 
Feminine. 
I Common. 

I Neuter. ' 

| First. 

I 
Person ■{ Second. 

I 

I Third. 



Nximbci 



Singular. 



Plural. 



| Nominative 

I Possessive. 
i 

I Objective. 
(_ Independent 



61 
' DEFINITION TO CHAKT No. 2. 

A Noun is a name. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead <>f a noun. 

An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit a noun or a pro- 
noun. 

A Verb is a word that signifies to he, or to do. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify the sense of a verb, adjec- 
tive, or other adverb. 

A Preposition is a word used to show a relation of a noun or pro- 
noun to some other word. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses^ 

An Interjection is a word used to express some emotion of the 
mind. 

A Proper Noun is a particular name. * 

A Common Noun is a general name. 

A Collective Noun is the name of two or more together. 

An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality apart from its object. 

A Verbal Noun is the name of a state of being or action. 

Gender is a modification to distinguish objects in regard to sex. 
The Masculine Gender denotes males 
The Femine Gender denotes females. 
The Common Gender denotes either or both sexes. 
The Neuter Gender denotes things without sex. 

Person is a modification t > distinguish the speaker, the object 
i addressed, and tho object spoken of. 
The First Person denotes the speaker. 
The Second Person denotes the object spoken to. 
The Third Person denotes the object spoken of. 

Number is a modification to distinguish unity and plurality. 
The Singular Number expresses but one. 
The Plural Number expresses more than one. 

Case is a modification to distinguish the relation of nouns and 
pronouns to other words. 

The Nominative Case denotes the subject of a finite verb. 

The Possessive Case denotes possession, origin, or design. 

The Objective denotes the object of an action, or a relation. 

The Independent Case has no governing word, and is not grammati- 
cally connected with other words. 

nouns— have a genera! 



62 
CHART No. 3. 



Pronouns. 





' I of the firjst. 


Personal 


Thou, or You of the second 
He, She, and It, of the third 




And their declined forms. 




Who. 




Which. 


Relative • 


What. 




That. 


* 


As. 



fWho. 

I 
Interrogative . ■{ Which. 

I What. 



Adjective 



( Is a common specifying Ad- 
] jective, used as a Pro- 



Adjectives 



f ( Descriptive. 

Greater Class. J 

( Definitive. 



f Common. 
Proper. 
Participal. 
Compound. 
Numeral. 
Pronominal. 



Smaller Class . - 



{ Positive. 

I 
Degrees of Comparison . . \ Comparative. 

[Superlative. 



63 

DEFINITIONS TO CHART No. 3. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

A Personal Pronou* is one that by its form denotes its person. 
There are five— I. of the first person ; Thou, or You, of the second; 
He, She, and It, of the third, and their declined forms. 

The simple pronouns are compounded by adding the word self 
or selves to them. They are used in the nominative or objective 
cases, but never in possessive. 

A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to an antecedent, and unites 
clauses. 

Who is applied to persons. 

Which to things and brutes. 

What is a double relative, equivalent to thing or things which. 

That is a relative when it can be changed to who or which. 

As is a relative when it follows such, many, or same. 

An Interrogative Pronoun is one used in asking a question. 

Who, as an Interrogative Pronoun, is applied to persons. 

Which and What, to persons, things and brutes. 

An Adjective Pronoun is a common specifying Adjective, used as a 
Pronoun. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun or a pronoun, and defines 
or limits, and expresses quality. 

A Descriptive Adjective expresses qualit; , kind, or condition, 

A Dejlnitive Adjective defines or limits. 

A Common Adjective is any ordinary epithet. 

A Proper Adjective is derived from a proper noun. 

AParticipal Adjective is a participal placed before the noun which 
it describes. 

A Compound Adjective is two or more simple words joined together. 

A Numeral Adjective expresses number. 

A Pronominal Adjective is a definitive adjective which represents 
a noun understood. 
Comparison is a variation to express degrees of quality. 

The Positive is expressed by the adjective in its simple form. 

The Comparative is higher or lower than the positive. 

The Superlative is the highest or lowest of all contrasted. 



64 



CHART No. 4 



Vekbs 

in relation < 
to their 



( Regular. 
{ Irregular. 



( Neuter. 
Subjeet, are ] Active. 



■ y , f Transitive. 

Object, arc. j Intransit ive. 



Verbs 

are 

modified by 



Mood 



Tens 



Person . 



Active. 
Passive. 



Indicative 



Potential 



\ Present. 

Present Perfect. 

Past. 
1 Past Perfect. 

Future 

Futnr ■ Perfect. 



Present. 
j Present Perfect. 
1 Past. 

Past Perfect, 



Subjunctive., j p resen t. 



[ Imperative 



Present. 



Present. 

Present Perfect. 

Past. 

Past Perfect. 

Future. 

Future Perfect, 



First. 

Second. 
Third. 



Number,... [ pSf^ 



65 
DEFINITIONS TO CHART No. 4. 



Verb.- 



A Regular Verb is one -\vliose past tense , nds in ed. 
An Irregular Verb is one whose past tens.- i!o< 3 not end in ed. 
A Xeuter Verb expresses neither action or passion, but being, or 
state of being 
An Active Verb expresses action. 

A Passive Verb represents its subject as being acted upon. 
A Transitive Verb expresses an action which has an object. 
An Intransitive Verb expresses an action which has no object. 

The Subject is that of which something is asserted. 

The Object is the word or words on which the act expressed by the 
verb terminates. 

Voice is that form of the transitive verb which shows whether the 
subject does or receives the act. 
The Active Voice represents the subject as acting. 
The Passive Voice represents the subject as acted upon. 

Moon is the manner in which the action, being, or state is asserted. 

The Indicative asserts a thing as actually existing. 

The Potential Mood asserts the power, liberty, permission, necessity, 
or duty of acting, or of being. 

Tin- Subjunctive Mood asserts a thing, as conditional, or doubtful. 

The Imperative Mood asserts a command, an entreaty, or a per- 
mission. 

Tense primarily denotes the time of an action, or an event, in re- 
lation to the moment of speaking. 

The Present Tense represents what takes place in present time. 

The Present Perfect Tense represents a past event, as completed in 
present time. 

The Past Tense represents what took place in time wholly past. 

The Past Perfect Tense represents. a past event as completed in 
time wholly past. 

The Future Tense represents what will take place in future time. 

The Future Perfect Tense represents an event as completed in 
future time. 

Person and Number of a Verb is a change in form to agree with its 
subject, and the noun. There are three persons and two 
numbers. 



m 



CHART No. 5. 





Time. 
Place. 


Adverbs < 


Legree. 




Cause. 


_ 


Manner. 


f Prepositions 


I iscuss the use of . . . -\ Conjunctions 




[ Interjections. 



SYNTAX BEGINS. 



Natural Order op Writing . . 



1st. Adjective. 

2d. Subject; 
<! 3d. Verb. 

4th. Object. 
{ 5th. Adverb. 



1. Separate discourse into paragraphs. 

2. Separate paragraphs into sentences and phrases. 

f Kind. 



3 Analyze the 



Sentences, by telling, -j Principal Element. 
I 
[ Adjunct Element. 



Phrases, by telling . . 



Leader. 
Subsequent. 



Examples . 



67 
DEFINITIONS TO CHART No. 5. 

Adverbs of Time, answers— When ? How long ? How often ? 
Place, " Where? Whither? Whence? • 

" Degree, " How much ? In what degree 

Cause, " Why ? Wherefore ? For what ? 

Manner, " How ? In what manner ? 

DISCUSS THE USE OP PREPOSITIONS. 

Show how they are used. Prepositions commonly indicate the 
office of the phrase which they introduce — 
During, till, since, etc., indicate a relation of time. 
In, on, under, above, etc., " " place. (Idea of rest.) 

From, into, through, out of, " " place. (Idea of motion) 

f in the hall. 
I. My hat is -{ on the chair. 

[ under the stand. 
| from Owego 

II. I came... ■{ to Areola, 

I I 

[ \ through Paterson. 

As the kind of relation expressed by a given preposition is not 

uniform, no perfect classification can be made. 
Discuss the use of conjunctions and interjections in the manner 

above indicated. 

Discourse is any train of thought embodied in language. 

Analysis is the resolving of a whole into its parts. 

A Paragraph is a sentence, or a combination of sentences, distin- 
guished by a break and a new beginning. 

A Sentence is a thought expressed by a proposition, or a unioc of 
propositions, followed by a full pause. 

A Phrase is a combination of words, not constituting an entire 
proposition. 

The PJlements of a Sentence are the parts which enter into its 
structure. 

The Principal Elements make the unmodified assertion. 

The Adjunct Elements make the modified assertion. 

The Leader of a Phrase is the word which introduces it. 

The Subsequent of a Phrase is the word which depends on, or fol- 
lows the leader. 



m 



CHART No. 6. 



Phbases 
are according to i 
their 



Structure 



Uses. 



f Prepositional. 
Infinitive. 
Participal. 
Independent. 



f Substantive. 
I Adjective. 
I Adverbical. 
[ Independent 



Sentences 

are according to 

their 



f Simple. 
Structure { Compound. 
( Complex. 



Uses 



Principal 



Auxiliary. 



f Declarative, 
\ Interrogative. 
I Imperative. 

f Substantive. 

1 Adjective. 
Adverbial. 



DEFINITIONS TO CHART No. 6. 

A Prepositional Phrase, is a phrase introduced by ^preposition. 

An Infinitive Phrase is a phrase introduced by the preposition to, 

having a verb as its object of relation. 

A Participal Phrase is a phrase introduced by a participle. 

An Independent Phrase is introduced b; a noun or a pronoun, fol- 
lowed by a participle depending upon it. 

A Substantive Phrase is a phrase used as a noun. 

An Adjective Phrase is a phrase used as an adjective. 

An Adverbial Phrase is a phrase used as an adverb. 

An Independent Phrase is a phrase not grammatically connected 
with any other word. 

A Simple Sentence asserts but one proposition. 

A Compound Sentence asserts more than one proposition. 

A Principal Sentence asserts the principal proposition. 

An Auxiliary Sentence depends upon the principal sentence, and 
the two constitute a complex sentence. 

A Complex Sentence is composed of one principal clause or propo- 
sition, and one or more subordinate or auxiliary sentences. 

A Sentence is declarative when it declares. 

A Sentence is interrogative when it asks a question. 

A Sentence is imperative when it expresses a command, or a 'wish. 

A Substantive Sentence is used as a noun. 

An Adjective Sentence is used as an adjective. 

An Adverbial Sentence is used as an adverb. 



?a 



CHART No. 7. 



ORDER 
OP PARSING 



I. Noun 



II. Pronoun. 



Class. 

Gender. 

Person. 

Numbed. 

Case. 

Rule. 



Class. 

Gender. 

Person. 

Number. 

To what relates. 

Rule. 

Case. 

Rule. 



r Class. 
III. Adjective... ? eg Xt relates, 
[ Rule. 



IV. Verb 



Form. 

Neuter, active or passive. 
Transitive or intransitive* 
Voice. 
Mood. 
Tense. 
Person. 
Number. 
[ Rule. 



! Class. 
Modifiers. 
Rule. 



VI. Preposition.. 



VII. Conjunction. 



VIII. Interjection 



Relation. 
Rule. 

Class. 

Connection. 

Rule. 



How used. 
Rule. 



IX. Infinitives & 



Present or 
Perfect. 
Transitive or 
i Intransitive. 
Participles | Neuter. 

On what depends. 
Rule. 



71 
RULE'; OF SYNTAX. 

I. The subject of a Ffrrt Verbis in the nominative rase. 

II. A Noian or Pronoun, used to explain a preceeding noun or 
pronoun, is put by apposition in the same case. 

IIL A Noun or a Pronoun that limits the meaning of another, by 
denoting posse ssion, is put in the possessive case. 

IV. A Noun or a Pronoun, not governed, is ptit in the independ- 
ent caso. 

V. Double Relatives always supply two cases. 

VI. The object of an Action, or a Relation, is put in the objective 
case. 

VII. Intransitive and Passive Verbs have the same case alter :..• 
before them, when both words refer to the same thing. 

VIII. Adjectives relate to nouns, pronouns, phrases or clauses. 

IX. Prepositions show the relation of ideas. 

X. A Verb must agree with its subject, in person and number. 

XI. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, in gender, per- 
son and number. 

XII. Infinitives and Participles relate to nouns or pronouns as 
their subject. 

XIII. Adverbs modify verbs, participles, adjectives and other ad- 

verbs. 

XIV. When two or more singular Nouns or Pr >nouns are taken 

together, a verb or pronoun, to agree with them, must be 
plural; but when taken separately, a verb or a pronoun, 
to agree with them, must be singular. 

XV. Conjunctions connect worJs, phrases, and clauses. 

XYI. Interjections have no dependence ia construction. 



n 



CHART No. 8. 



Syntax 



Figures...... .. - 



PROSODY . . 



Rhetoric 



\ purification. 

Utterance. 

Punctuation. 



Aphceresis. 
Syncope. 

OBTHOO^HV.. \ XXsiS. 

Paragoge. 



Ellipsis. 

Aposiopesis. 

Zeugma. 

Pleonasm. 

Enallage. 

Inversion. 

Archaism. 

Mimicry. 



Simile. 
Metaphor. 

Allegory. 

Metonymy. 

Synecdoche. 

Personification 

Antithesis. 

Irony. 

Paralipsis. 

Hyperbole. 

Climax. 

Allusion. 

Euphemism. 

Interrogation. 

Exclamation. 

Apostrophe. 

Vision. 

Onomatopoeia. 



,73 

DEFINITIONS TO CHART No. 8. 



A Figure is any deviation from the grammatical, or ordinary 
form, construction or application of words. 

Figures of Orthography are deviations from the ordinary spelling, 
or pronunciation of words. 

Aphteresis shortens a word, by taking a letter or syllable from the 
beginning of a word. 

Syncope shortens a word, by taking a letter or syllable from the 
middle. 

Apocope shortens a word, by taking a letter or syllable from the 
end. 

Prosthesis lengthens a word, by prefixing a syllable. 

Paragoge lengthens a word, by annexing a syllable. 

Tmesis inserts a word between the parts of a compound word. 

Figures of Syntax are deviations from the ordinary construction 
of words. 

Ellipsis is the omission of words; usually must be supplied in 
parsing. 

Ajjosiopesis is the leaving of something unsaid. 

Zeugma is the referring of a word to two different ones, when in 
direct syntax it can only agree with one of them. 

Pleonasm is the use of more words than the sense requires. 

Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of_one form of a 
word for another. 

Inversion is inverted syntax, or the transposition of words. 

A rchaism is a word or expression, imitative of ancient style, or 
usage. 

Mimicry is the imitation of another person's improper use of 

language. 

Figures of Rhetoric are deviations' from the ordinary meaning of 
words. 

A Simile is an express comparison. A Metaphor is an implied 
comparison. 

An Allegory is a fictitious story about one thing, and is a con- 
tinued metaphor. 



74 



Metonymy is the name of one object applied to a different one, 
from some other relation than resemblance. 

Synecdoche is the name of a part applied to the whole, or vice versa. 

Personification represents as persons, objects that are not such in 
reality. 

Antithesis is the contrasting of different objects, actions, qualities 
or circumstances. 

Irony is the sneering use of words with a contrary meaning. 

Par alipsis is the pretended omission, or concealment of what is 
thus really suggusted and enforced. 

Hyperbole is exaggeration. 

Climax is a gradual climbing, from things inferior, to greater or 
better. 

Allusion is the use of an expression, that recalls, incidentally, 
some interesting fact, custom, etc. 

Euphemism is a softened mode of speech for what would be disa- 
greeable, or offensive, if told in the plainest language. 

Interrogation is a mode of strengthening a statement by an appeal 
in the form of a question. 

Exclamation is designed to express more strongly the emotions of 
the speaker. 

Apostrophe is a sudden turning away, in the fullness of emotion, 
to address some person or thing. 

Vision represents something that is past, future, absent or imag- 
ined, as if it were really present. 

Onomatopoeia is such an imitation in the sound of the words as 
may correspond with the sense, or suggest it. 



Note. — To say what we mean, and nothing more, never can con- 
stitute a deviation from the ordinary grammatical construction of 
words; therefore, there can never be an ellipsis of anything which 
is either unnecessary to the construction or necessary to the 
sense. Ellipsis, as a figure of Syntax, can be only of such words as 
are so evidently suggested to the reader, that the writer is as fully 
answerable for them as if he had written them. To suppose an 
ellipsis where there is none, or to overlook one where it really oc- 
curs, is to pervert or mutilate the text, in order to accommodate 
it to the parser's ignoi'ance of th? principles of Syntax. 



76 
CHART No. 9. 



VERSIFICATION -> 





Principal... - 


Iambus. 
Trochee. 
Anapest. 


Pobtic Feet. 




Dactyl. 




f Spondee- 




Secondary . -j Pyrrhic. 




1 Caesura. 




Monometer, a line of one foot. 




Diameter, a line of two feet. 




Trimeter, a line of three feet. 


Poetic Likes. \ 


Tetrameter, a line of four feet 
Pentameter, a line of five feet. 




Hexameter, a line of six feet. 




Heptameter, a line of seven ft. 


. 


Octometer, a line of eight ft. 


' Poetic Pauses 


Final. 
Caesural. 


r 

i 


Single, when one syllable. 


RHYilM .... \ 


Double, when two syllables. 


1 
1 


Triple, when three syllables. 


Vekse ) 

i Stanza. 

; 


Blank. 
Heroic. 
' Spelling. 




Pronunciation. 




Choice of words. 


Poetic License 


Meaning of words. 


is allowed in 


* 

Idioms. 




Syntax. 




Figures. 


i 


Versification. 



DEFINITIONS TO CHART No. 9. 

Versification is the art of making verse. 

A Poetic Foot is a part of a line that consists of two or three sylla« 
ables, one accented. 

Iambus is a foot of two syllables, accented on the second. 

Trochee is a foot of two syllables., accented on the first. 

Anapest is a foot of three syllables, accented on the last. 

Dactyl is a foot of three syllables, accented on the first. 

Spondee is a foot of two long or accented syllables. 

Pyrrhic is a foot of two short or unaccented syllables. 

Caesura is a long or accented syllable, used as one foot. 

Poetic Lines are named according to the number of feet composing 
them. See Chart. 

Poetic Pauses are made to improve the rhythm. 

Final Pause is a slight pause made at the end of each line, even 
■when the grammatical sense does not require it. 

Cozsural Pause is a slight pause made within the line, most fre- 
quently about the middle of it; and it chiefly belongs to long lines. 

Rhyme is a similarity of sound between. the endings of poetic 
lines. 

Verse is the musical arrangement of words, according to some 
regular accent. 

Blank Verse is verse without rhyme. 

Heroic Verse is verse that consists of iambic pentameters. 

A Stanza is a combination of three or more poetic lines that 
usually make a distinct chime of rhymes, and a regular division of 
the poem. Scanning is dividing the verse into its feet. 

Poetic License is an allowed deviation from the correctness of 
ordinary prose, or from the regular laws of versification. 

•Note.— The names under this last topic suggests the deviations to be made. 



78 



CHART No. 10. 



UTTERANCE 



PUNCTUATION. 



f Articulation. 
Degree of Loudness 
Degree of Rapidity. 
< Inflection. 
Tones. 
Emphasis. 
[ Pauses, 
f Period. 

Colon. 

Semicolon. 

Comma. 

Interrogation. 

Exclamation. 

Dash. Curves. 

Brackets. Quotation Marks. 

Apostrophe. Hyphen. 

Acute Accent. 

Grave Accent. 

Circumflex Accent. 

Macron. Breve. 

Diaeresis. Cedilla. 

Tilde. Caret.- 

Brace. Section. 

Paragraph. 

Star, Dagger, or Double Dagger. 

Ditto. 

Hand. 

Asterism. 

Leaders. 

Underscore. 



19 
DEFINITIONS TO CHAET No. 10. 

Utterance is the art of vocal expression. 

Articulation is the distinct utterance of the oral elements, sylla- 
bles and words. 

Degree of Loudness and Rapidity must depend on circumstances — ■ 
such as speaker, hearer, discourse, and the place. 

Inflections refer to the passage of the voice from one pitch to 
another. 

Tones are modulations of the voice. 

Emphasis is an elevation of the voice on some words, word or part 
of a word. 

Pauses are of three kinds : Sentential or Grammatical, which show 
the grammatical • Rhetorical, which are used for effect; and Har- 
monic, which are used in po'etry. 

The Period (.) denotes the longest pause, or a full stop; and is put 
at the end of every word, phrase, or sentence, complete in itself, 
and not interrogative or exclamatory; also, after all abbreviations. 

The Colon (:) denotes the next shorter pause, and is used as an 
intermediate point between the semicolon and the period; after a 
statement that ends with asfolloivs, the following, thus, these, or other 
words of the same -meaning; also, after an address that begins a 
discourse or letter, and before an important remark added to a 
sentence. 

The Semicolon (;) denotes the next shorter pause, and is used to 
separate parts that require a point greater than the comma, and 
less than the colon; also, the parts of a loose series; and they may 
consist of subjects, predicates, modifiers, or clauses. It is fre- 
quently placed before and, but, for, though, yet, nor, nay, hence, 
therefore, or similar connectives, when they unite clauses that are 
rather long, and make but one sentence. 

The Comma (,) denotes the shortest pause, and is used to separate 
the parts of a complex sentence, when the auxiliary precedes the 
principal sentence ; to separate words of the same construction, 
when used consecutively; but the adjective next to its noun must 
not be separated; to separate words, phrases and clauses thrown 
in between the parts of a principal sentence; to separate a phrase 
or a sentence from the verb, when they are its subject; to separate 
words used in direct address; to separate adjunct sentences, 
phrases, and sometimes words, not in their natural position. 



80 

The Interrogation Point (?) is placed after every complete direct 
question, whether it forms a complete sentence, or only a part of a 
sentence. 

The Exclamation Point (I) is p'.acM after every word, phrase, 
clause or sentence that indieat. s s irprlse, grief, joy, or other 
emotion in the speaker. 

The Dash (— ) denotes emphasis or abruptness. 

The Curves ( ) eueloe some explanation, or remark that can be 
omitted. 

The Brackets ([]) enclose some correction, or explanation, that is 
generally inserted by another person. 

The Quotation Marks ("") enclose words taken from another 
person. 

The Apostrophe (') denotes possession, or the omission of some 
letter or letters. 

The Hyphen (-) joins the parts of most compound words, and is 
placed at the end of a line, when a part of a word is carried to the 
next line. 

The Acute Accent ( ') marks stress of voice. 

The Grave Accent ( x ) shows a sinking of the voice. 

The Circumflex Accent (* or ") is a union of the other two accents. 

The Macron (-) marks a long sound. 

The Breve ( ~ ) makes a short sound. 

The Dioeeresis ( ") separates two vowels into two syllables. 

The Cedilla (c) is a French mark joined to the lower part of c, to 
give it the sound of s. 

The Tilde (n\ is a Spanish mark, placed over n, to annex to it the 
sound of y. 

The Caret ( ") is used in writing, to show where words or letters 
are to be inserted. 

The Brace (—> — ) serves to connect parts. 

The Section (§) is sometimes used to mark the small divisions of a 
book. 

The Paragraph (H) shows where a new subject begins. 

The Star, Dagger or Double Dagger (*~\ i) are used as marks of 
reference. 



81 

The Stars, Double Dash, or Periods (**. , . . .) denote omission, 

or suppression. 

The Ditto (") is used instead of repeating the word or words. 

The Hand (i£g=) directs special attention to something. 

The Asterism ■(%.*) is sometimes placed before a note that has a 
general reference. 

The Leaders ( ) lead the eye from one part to another, over a 

blank space. 

The Underscore ( ) is a line drawn under words in writing, 

that are to be printed in italics, or capitals. 



MEASURES. 

Stanzas of four lines, the 1st and 3d, four feet; 2u and 4th, three 
feet, is C. M. 

Stanzas of four lines, the 3d, four feet; the others three feet, is 
S. M. 

Stanzas of four lines, four feet in each. L, M. 

Stanzas of four lines, fire feet in each. Elegiac. 



82 



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TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL LAKES OF THE WORLD. 

NORTH AMERICA. 



Names. 


In What State or 
Country. 


Area in 

Sq. Miles. 


Altitude 
iu Ft. 


Depth 
in Ft. 


Superior 


North of U. S 


31,4C0 . . . 
25 600 . . . 
23-. 800 . . . 
10.000 ... 

9.300 . .. 

8.900 .... 

8. 300 ... 

7,300 ... 

3.500 ... 

3 2 10 . . . 

3-200 . . . 


600 .. 
574 .. 
574 . . 
565 . . 
230 . . 
628 . . 

235 . . 

4,200 . . 
0(10 .. 


1,200 
1.000 


Huron 

Erie 


N. E. of Michigan . 

North of Ohio 

British America. . . 

N. New York 

Central America ... . 
Utah 


1,000 
80 


Great Bear Lake . . . 




Great Slave Lake. . . 
Ontario 


600 


Nicaragua 

Great Salt Lake . .. 




Lake of the Woods. 


500... 


977 .. 



SOUTH AMERICA. 



Lake Maracaib< 
Lake Titicaoa 



Venezuela. 
Bolivia.... 



5,300 
3 ooo 



Sea lev. 
12.850.; 700 



EUROPE. 





Russia 


6,900 . . . 
4.900 . . . 

2.300 , .. 

800 . . . 

320 . . . 

255 . . . 

202 . . . 
' 240 . . . 

190 ... 

140 . . . 
70 . . . 
59 . . . 


50 .. 

237 

143 ! '. 

289 . . 

6 .. 

469 . . 

76 .. 

1.226 . . 

1.263 . . 

237 . . 

685 . . 

697 .. 










Sweden 




Wetter 


400 












38 


Hielmar 


Sweden 

Switzerland 

Italy .... 


980 




1.027 

950 

2.620 


Garda 

Maggiore 

Como 




1.930 



ASIA. 





W. Asia 


132 000 . . 


Dep'd83 

36 . 
1.28 ) . 

500 . 

4.350 . 

5.520 . 

5,470 . 
D1.286 . 
15.600 . 


2,700 


Aral Sea 


2o.400 .. 
15,20 ' . . 

0.400 . . 
3.5(10 . . 
2.300 . . 
2.000 . . 
1.700 . . 
1.500 . . 
1.414 .. 
500 . . 
40 .. 


200 




E. Siberia . 


3.000 
60 


Balkhash 


W. Siberia 

Thibet 


Toug-ting 








Mongolia. 

Armenia 

Mongolia 






50 










Dead Sea , 

Sirikol.. 


Palestine 

Pamir 


1,300 



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89 
TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS OF THE WORLD. 

NORTH AMERICA. 



Vol. Popoeatapetl. 

Mt. St. Elias 

Vol. Orizaba 

Mt. Brown 

Mt. Hooker 

Mt. Fairweafher . , 
Fremont's Peak. .. 

Pike's Peak 

Mt. Shasta 

Mt. Linn 

Laramie Peak 

Mitchel's Peak 

Round Top 

Mt. Marey 

Mansfield 

Washington 



IN WHAT COUNTRY 
OR STATE. 



Mexico 

Alaska 

Mexico 

British Ameri 

Alaska 

U. S. Wyomiu 

California 



IN WHAT RANGE. 



Sierra Madn 
Cascade .... 
Sierra Madr< 
Rocky 



Cascade . 

Rocky... 



Wyoming . . 
N. Carolina. 
New York . . 



Vol. Acongacua. 

Mt. Sahama 

Vol Gualatieri. . 

Chimborazo 

Mt. Illimani 

Vol. Cotopaxi . . . 
Vol. Areguipa... 

VoL Tolima 

Mt. Itambe 



Vermont 

New Hampshire . . . 

SOUTH AMERICA 

E. Chilli 

Bolivia 

Peru 

Ecuador 

Bolivia 

Ecuador 

Peru 

Colombia 

Brazil 



Cascade 

Cost Range 

Black Hills 

Alleghany ; 

Catskill Mts 

Adirondac Mt... 

Green Mts 

White Mts | 

Andes I 



17884* 
17860 
17374 
15990 
15675 
14900 
13570 
14500 
14400 
10000* 
8000* 
6711* 
3804* 
5379* 
4430* 
6428 



Serra Doespin'co 



Mt. Konjakofski. 

Mt. Elboorz 

Skagestoltiud . . . 

Mt. Blanc 

Mt. Corno 

Mt. Maladetta... 
Mt. Mulahaceu . . 
Ben Nevis 



EUROPE. 

E. of Russia .... 

S. of Russia 

E. of Norway . . , 

E. of France 

Italy 

N. <>f Spain 

Spain 

Scotland 



Mt. Everest 

Hindoo Koh 

Vol. Demavend 

Mt. Arjich 

Mt. Hermon 

Mt. Kunchinginga 

Mt. Ararat 

Mt. Sinai 



ASIA. 

N. of Hindostan. . 
N. of Afghan is tin. 

Persia 

Turkey 

Turkey 

N. of Hindoostan. 

Turkey 

Turkey 



Ural Mts 

Caucasus Mts . . . 

Scandinavian 

Alps 

Apennines 

Pyrenees 

Sierra Nevada. . . 
Grampian Hills . 

Himalaya I 

Hindoo Koosh. . . 

Elburz Mts 

Anti-Taurus Mts 
Anti-Lebonon Mt 

Himalaya 

Zagros 



23910* 
22350 
12000 
21420 
21149 
18887 
18400 
18336 
5960* 



5397* 
17796* 

8153* 
15810* 

9523* 
11168* 
11678* 

4370* 



290021 
20230* 
14700* 
13000* 
10000* 
28178 
17210 
7497 





AFRICA. 

E. of Ethiopia 

E. of Ethiopia- . .. 


Mts. of the Moon 

Atlas Mts 

Snow Mts 


20000 


Mt. Kilimandjaro . . 
Mt- Miltsin. . . 


20000 
11400 


Spitzkop 


Cape Colony 


10250 



Highest. 



t Highest in the World. 



90 
OKIGIN OF THE NAMES OF THE STATES. 

Maine was so called as early as 1623, from-Maine, in France, of 
which Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I., of England, was at that 
time proprietor. Popular names— The Lumber, or Pine Tree State. 

New Hampshire was the name given to the territory , conveyed 
by the Plymouth Company to Captain John Mason, by patent, Nov. 
7th, 1629, with reference to the patentee, who was governor of 
Portsmouth, in Hampshire, England. Popular name — The Granite 
State. 

Vebmont was so called by the inhabitants, in their Declaration 
of Independence, January 16, 1777, from the French word verd mont, 
the Green Mountains Popular name — The Green Mountain State. 

Massachusetts was so called from Massachusetts Bay, and that 
from the Massachusetts tribe of Indians, in the neighborhood of 
Boston. The tribe is thought to have derived its name from the 
Blue Hills of Milton. " I had learnt," says Koger Williams,- " that 
the Massachusetts was so called from the Blue Hills." Popular 
name— The Bay State. 

Rhode Island was so called in 1664, in reference to the Island of 
Rhodes, in the Mediterranean. Popular name — Little Rhody. 

Connecticut was so called from the Indian name of its principal 
river. Connecticut is a Mocheakannew word, signifying long 
river. Popular names— The, Nutmeg, or Free Stone State. 

New Yoke was so called in 1664, in reference to the Duke of York 
and Albany, to whom this territory was granted by the King of 
England. Popular names— The Empire, or Excelsior State. 

New Jeksey was so called in 1664, from the Island of Jersey, on 
the coast of France, the residence of the family of Sir George Car- 
teret, to whom the territory was granted. 

Pennsylvania was so called in 1684. It is compounded of two 
words, Penn, and the Latin word salvania; it signifies Penn's woods. 
Popular name— The Keystone State. 

Delaware was so called in 1703, from Delaware Bay, on which it 
lies, and which received its name from Lord de la War, who died in 
this bay. Popular names— The Blue Hen, or Diamond State. 

Maryland was so called in honor of Henrietta Maria, wife of 
Charles I, in his patent to Lord Baltimore, June 30, 1632. 

Virginia was so called in 1584, after Elizabeth, the virgin Queen 
of England. Popular names— The Old Dominion, or Mother of 
States. 

Georgia was so called in 1732, in honor of King George II, 



91 v 

Carolina was so called by the French, in 1564, in honor of King 
Charles IX., of France. Popular name of South Carolina — The Pal- 
metto State; of North Carolina— The Old North or Turpentine State 

Alabama was so called in 1S1L from its principal river meaning 
here we rest. The name is of Indian origin. 

Mississippi was so called in 1800. The name is of Indian origin, 
signifying, according to some writers, the great river; according 
to others, the great father of waters. Popular name — The Bayou 
State. 

Louisiana was so called in 18G2, in honor of Louis XIV of France. 
Popular name— The Creole State. 

Tennessee was so called in 1796, from its principal river. The 
word Ten-as se is said to signify a curved spoon. Popular name — 
The Big-Bend State. 

Kentucket was so called in 1796, from its principal river. Pop- 
ular name — The State of Dark and Bloody Ground. 

Illinois was so called in 1809, from its principal river. The 
word, an Indian one, is said to signify the river of men, or a perfect and 
accomplished man. Popular names — The Sucker, or Prairie State. 

Indiana was so called in 1809, from the American Indians. Pop- 
ular name — The Hoosier State. 

Ohio was so called in 1802, from its southern boundary. Popular 
name — The Buckeye State. Meaning, of Indian word Ohio-i, Beau- 
tiful. 

Missouri was so called in 1821, from its principal river. Indian 
name, meaning muddy water. 

Michigan was so called in 1805, from the lake on its border. 
Indian name, meaning, according to one writer, a weir for fish ; ac- 
cording to another writer, it is formed from two Indian words, 
signifying great lake. Popular name — The Wolverine State. 

Arkansas was so called in 1812, from its principal river. It was 
the name of a tribe of Indians. Popular name — The Bear State. 

Florida was so called by Juan Ponce de Leon, in 1572, because it 
was discovered on Eastei Sunday; in Spanish, Pascua Florida. 

Wisconsin was so called from its principal river. The river was 
first called, by Marquette, in 1G73, Masconsin ; it became changed to 
Onisconsin, and finally to Wisconsin. Indian name, meaning wild 
rushing river. 

Iowa was so called from its principal river. Indian name, mean- 
ing, according to some writers, the sleepy ones • according to others, 
here is the place. 



Oregon was so called, says one writer, from its principal river. 
Indian name, meaning river of the west. Another writer of note says 
the name was probably invented by Captain Carver, who made an 
early exploration of the region. A third writer gives it as his 
opinion, that the name was derived from the Spanish orcgano, wild 
sage, which grows in great abundance on the Pacific roast. 

Minnesota is an Indian word. The name was first applied to the 
river. It signifies, according to one writer, the whitish water; ac- 
cording to another, it is compounded of two Indian words, signify, 
ing sky-colored water. 

California is a Spanish word; according to one writer it was 
named from an arm of the Pacific coast; another writer says: "A 
romance was published in Spain in 1510, in which the word Califor- 
nia, applied to an imaginary island, for the first time occurred. 
Cortez had read the book, it is supposed, and when he sailed along 
the coast of Mexico, in 1535, supposing he was in the region of the 
island, he called the country California." Popular name — The 
Golden State. 

Iexas, says one writer, was a Spanish word applied to the Bepub- 
lic; according t i another, the name, Texas, was derived from Las 
Tekas, supposed t > have been the name of a petty tribe of Indians, 
living in Eastern Texas. 

Kansas is said to signify smoky water. It "was the name of a tribe 
of Indians. 

West Virginia — so called after Virginia. 

Nevada was named from the mountain range on the west of it. 
It is a Spanish word, meaning white with snow. 

Nebraska was a name applied to the Platte river, which runs 
through the State. It is of Indian origin, signifying Ne, water, and 
braska, wide or shallow. 



EULE FOE THE USE OF CAPITAL 
LETTEES. 

The subject of discourse, words of special importance, every dis- 
tinct sentence, all proper names, words derived from proper 
names, every line of poetry, all appellations of Deity, the words I 
and O, and the chief words in the titles of books, should begin with 
a capital. 



f'3 



BULES FOE SPELLING. 



I, Primitive. 



1st. — Monosyllables ending in f, I, or s, double 
the final consonant, when preceded by 
a single vowel. 

2nd. — Words ending in any other consonant 
than./', /, or s, do not double the final 

letter. 



1st. 
Prefixes. 



II. Derivative. <{ 



2d. 

Suffixes. 



1st. —The final letters of a prefix is 
sometimes omitted. 

2d. — The final letter of a prefix are 
often changed to one which 
will harmonize in sound 
with the initial letter of the 
root. 



fist. — On receiving a suffix begin- 
ning with a vowel, the final 
consonant of a monosyllable 
or any other word accented 
on the last syllable, is dou- 
bled, if the root ends with 
a single consonant, preced- 
ed by a single vowel ; if not, 
it remains single 
2d. — In words ending in e, silent, 
the final vowel of the radi- 
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UNITED STATES FLAG. 

Congress, in July 1777, adopted a National Flag,, consisting of 
thirteen stripes, alternate red and white, with thirteen white 
stars in a blue field. 

A new star was added for each new State admitted. The thirteen 
stripes represent the thirteen original States. 



SIGNIFICATION OF FLAGS. 

A red flag, displayed to an enemy, is a sign of defiance. A white 
flag, displayed to an enemy, signifies an invitation to conference, 
or for the purpose of making some communication, not hostile. 

A black flag, when displayed to an enemy, signifies that no mercy 
will be shown to the vanquished, or that no quarter will be given. 

A flag hung one-half way to the top of the mast or staff, called 
half-mast high, or half -staff, is a token or sign of mourning. 

Pulling the flag down upon the cap, called striking, or lowering the 
flag, signifies a token of respect, submission, or, in an engagement, 
of surrender. 



